Print this chapterPrint this chapter

PrEP Provider Toolkit

Resources

References


  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States – 2021 update a clinical practice guideline. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/risk/prep/cdc-hiv-prep-guidelines-2021.pdf  

  2. Fiebig, Wright, D. J., Rawal, B. D., Garrett, P. E., Schumacher, R. T., Peddada, L., Heldebrant, C., Smith, R., Conrad, A., Kleinman, S. H., & Busch, M. P. (2003). Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS (London), 17(13), 1871–1879. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200309050-00005 

  3. DetermineTM HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo. (n.d.). Retrieved September 19, 2022, from https://www.globalpointofcare.abbott/en/product-details/determine-1-2-ag-ab-combo.html 

  4. Branson, B.M., Owen, M.S., Wesolowshi, L.G., Bennett, B., Werner, B.G., Wroblewski, K.E., Pentella, M.A. (2014). Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc.23447 

  5. Delaney, Hanson, D. L., Masciotra, S., Ethridge, S. F., Wesolowski, L., & Owen, S. M. (2017). Time until emergence of HIV test reactivity following infection with HIV-1: implications for interpreting test results and retesting after exposure. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 64(1), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw666 

  6. Patel, Borkowf, C. B., Brooks, J. T., Lasry, A., Lansky, A., & Mermin, J. (2014). Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS (London), 28(10), 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000298 

  7. Masciotra, Luo, W., Westheimer, E., Cohen, S. E., Gay, C. L., Hall, L., Pan, Y., Peters, P. J., & Owen, S. M. (2017). Performance evaluation of the FDA-approved DetermineTM HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo assay using plasma and whole blood specimens. Journal of Clinical Virology, 91, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2017.03.019 

  8. Daar, Pilcher, C. D., & Hecht, F. M. (2008). Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Current Opinion in HIV & AIDS, 3(1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0b013e3282f2e295 

  9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Estimated HIV incidence and prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hiv-surveillance-supplemental-report-vol-26-1.pdf 

  10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2019. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.   https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hiv-surveillance-report-2018-updated-vol-32.pdf 

  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
    https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hiv-surveillance-report-2020-updated-vol-33.pdf 

  1. Kahn, & Walker, B. D. (1998). Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. The New England Journal of Medicine, 339(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199807023390107 

  2. Cohen, Shaw, G. M., McMichael, A. J., & Haynes, B. F. (2011). Acute HIV-1 infection. The New England Journal of Medicine, 364(20), 1943–1954. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1011874 

  3. Mayer, Molina, J.-M., Thompson, M. A., Anderson, P. L., Mounzer, K. C., De Wet, J. J., DeJesus, E., Jessen, H., Grant, R. M., Ruane, P. J., Wong, P., Ebrahimi, R., Zhong, L., Mathias, A., Callebaut, C., Collins, S. E., Das, M., McCallister, S., Brainard, D. M., … Hare, C. B. (2020). Emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide vs emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (DISCOVER): primary results from a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, active-controlled, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. The Lancet (British Edition), 396(10246), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31065-5 

  4. Grant, Anderson, P. L., McMahan, V., Liu, A., Amico, K. R., Mehrotra, M., Hosek, S., Mosquera, C., Casapia, M., Montoya, O., Buchbinder, S., Veloso, V. G., Mayer, K., Chariyalertsak, S., Bekker, L.-G., Kallas, E. G., Schechter, M., Guanira, J., Bushman, L., … Glidden, D. V. (2014). Uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis, sexual practices, and HIV incidence in men and transgender women who have sex with men: a cohort study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 14(9), 820–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70847-3 

  5. Grant, Lama, J. R., Anderson, P. L., McMahan, V., Liu, A. Y., Vargas, L., Goicochea, P., Casapía, M., Guanira-Carranza, J. V., Ramirez-Cardich, M. E., Montoya-Herrera, O., Fernández, T., Veloso, V. G., Buchbinder, S. P., Chariyalertsak, S., Schechter, M., Bekker, L.-G., Mayer, K. H., Kallás, E. G., … Glidden, D. V. (2010). Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. The New England Journal of Medicine, 363(27), 2587–2599. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1011205 

  6. Baeten, Donnell, D., Mugo, N. R., Ndase, P., Thomas, K. K., Campbell, J. D., Wangisi, J., Tappero, J. W., Bukusi, E. A., Cohen, C. R., Katabira, E., Ronald, A., Tumwesigye, E., Were, E., Fife, K. H., Kiarie, J., Farquhar, C., John-Stewart, G., Kidoguchi, L., … Celum, C. (2014). Single-agent tenofovir versus combination emtricitabine plus tenofovir for pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV-1 acquisition: an update of data from a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 14(11), 1055–1064. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70937-5 

  7. Thigpen, Kebaabetswe, P. M., Paxton, L. A., Smith, D. K., Rose, C. E., Segolodi, T. M., Henderson, F. L., Pathak, S. R., Soud, F. A., Chillag, K. L., Mutanhaurwa, R., Chirwa, L. I., Kasonde, M., Abebe, D., Buliva, E., Gvetadze, R. J., Johnson, S., Sukalac, T., Thomas, V. T., … Brooks, J. T. (2012). Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. The New England Journal of Medicine, 367(5), 423–434. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1110711 

  8. Choopanya, Martin, M., Suntharasamai, P., Sangkum, U., Mock, P. A., Leethochawalit, M., Chiamwongpaet, S., Kitisin, P., Natrujirote, P., Kittimunkong, S., Chuachoowong, R., Gvetadze, R. J., McNicholl, J. M., Paxton, L. A., Curlin, M. E., Hendrix, C. W., & Vanichseni, S. (2013). Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. The Lancet (British Edition), 381(9883), 2083–2090. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61127-7 

  9. Martin, Vanichseni, S., Suntharasamai, P., Sangkum, U., Mock, P. A., Chaipung, B., Worrajittanon, D., Leethochawalit, M., Chiamwongpaet, S., Kittimunkong, S., Gvetadze, R. J., McNicholl, J. M., Paxton, L. A., Curlin, M. E., Holtz, T. H., Samandari, T., & Choopanya, K. (2016). Factors associated with the uptake of and adherence to HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in people who have injected drugs: an observational, open-label extension of the Bangkok Tenofovir study. The Lancet HIV, 4(2), e59–e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(16)30207-7 

  10. Landovitz, Donnell, D., Clement, M. E., Hanscom, B., Cottle, L., Coelho, L., Cabello, R., Chariyalertsak, S., Dunne, E. F., Frank, I., Gallardo-Cartagena, J. A., Gaur, A. H., Gonzales, P., Tran, H. V., Hinojosa, J. C., Kallas, E. G., Kelley, C. F., Losso, M. H., Madruga, J. V., … Sued, O. (2021). Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 385(7), 595–608. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2101016 

  11. Delany-Moretlwe, Hughes, J. P., Bock, P., Hunidzarira, P., Kalonji, D., Kayange, N., Makhema, J., Mandima, P., Mathew, C., Spooner, E., Mpendo, J., Mukwekwerere, P., Mgodi, N., Ntege, P. N., Nakabiito, C., Nuwagaba-Biribonwoha, H., Panchia, R., Singh, N., Farrior, J., … Marzinke, M. A. (2022). Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. The Lancet (British Edition), 399(10337), 1779–1789. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00538-4 

  12. Molina, Capitant, C., Spire, B., Pialoux, G., Cotte, L., Charreau, I., Tremblay, C., Le Gall, J.-M., Cua, E., Pasquet, A., Raffi, F., Pintado, C., Chidiac, C., Chas, J., Charbonneau, P., Delaugerre, C., Suzan-Monti, M., Loze, B., Fonsart, J., … Delfraissy, J.-F. (2015). On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. The New England Journal of Medicine, 373(23), 2237–2246. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1506273 

  13. Antoni, Tremblay, C., Delaugerre, C., Charreau, I., Cua, E., Rojas Castro, D., Raffi, F., Chas, J., Huleux, T., Spire, B., Capitant, C., Cotte, L., Meyer, L., Molina, J.-M., Aboulker, J.-P., Bajos, N., Baril, J.-G., Besnier, M., Binesse, J., … Chidiac, C. (2020). On-demand pre-exposure prophylaxis with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate plus emtricitabine among men who have sex with men with less frequent sexual intercourse: a post-hoc analysis of the ANRS IPERGAY trial. The Lancet HIV, 7(2), e113–e120. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(19)30341-8 

  14. Eisinger, Dieffenbach, C. W., & Fauci, A. S. (2019). HIV viral load and transmissibility of HIV infection: undetectable equals untransmittable. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 321(5), 451–452. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.21167 

  15. Todd, Grosskurth, H., Changalucha, J., Obasi, A., Mosha, F., Balira, R., Orroth, K., Hugonnet, S., Pujades, M., Ross, D., Gavyole, A., Mabey, D., & Hayes, R. (2006). Risk factors influencing HIV infection incidence in a rural African population: a nested case-control study. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 193(3), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1086/499313 

  16. Wald, & Link, K. (2002). Risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in herpes simplex virus type 2–seropositive persons: a meta-analysis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 185(1), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1086/338231 

  17. Freeman, Weiss, H. A., Glynn, J. R., Cross, P. L., Whitworth, J. A., & Hayes, R. J. (2006). Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS (London), 20(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000198081.09337.a7 

  18. Atashili, Poole, C., Ndumbe, P. M., Adimora, A. A., & Smith, J. S. (2008). Bacterial vaginosis and HIV acquisition: a meta-analysis of published studies. AIDS (London), 22(12), 1493–1501. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283021a37 

  19. Kissinger, & Adamski, A. (2013). Trichomoniasis and HIV interactions: a review. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 89(6), 426–433. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2012-051005 

  20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV—United States, 2016. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/programresources/cdc-hiv-npep-guidelines.pdf

  21. Practice Bulletin No. 152: Emergency contraception. (2015). Obstetrics and Gynecology (New York. 1953), 126(3), e1–e11. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001047 

  22. Mugo, Heffron, R., Donnell, D., Wald, A., Were, E. O., Rees, H., Celum, C., Kiarie, J. N., Cohen, C. R., Kayintekore, K., & Baeten, J. M. (2011). Increased risk of HIV-1 transmission in pregnancy: a prospective study among African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. AIDS (London), 25(15), 1887–1895. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834a9338 

  23. Thomson, Hughes, J., Baeten, J. M., John-Stewart, G., Celum, C., Cohen, C. R., Ngure, K., Kiarie, J., Mugo, N., & Heffron, R. (2018). Increased risk of HIV acquisition among women throughout pregnancy and during the postpartum period: a prospective per-coital-act analysis among women with HIV-infected partners. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 218(1), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiy113 

  24. Mugwanya, John-Stewart, G., & Baeten, J. (2017). Safety of oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-based HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis use in lactating HIV-uninfected women. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 16(7), 867–871. https://doi.org/10.1080/14740338.2017.1338271 

  25. Benaboud, Pruvost, A., Coffie, P. A., Ekouévi, D. K., Urien, S., Arrivé, E., Blanche, S., Théodoro, F., Avit, D., Dabis, F., Tréluyer, J.-M., & Hirt, D. (2011). Concentrations of tenofovir and emtricitabine in breast milk of HIV-1-infected women in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, in the ANRS 12109 TEmAA study, step 2. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 55(3), 1315–1317. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00514-10 

  26. Waitt, Olagunju, A., Nakalema, S., Kyohaire, I., Owen, A., Lamorde, M., & Khoo, S. (20 18). Plasma and breast milk pharmacokinetics of emtricitabine, tenofovir and lamivudine using dried blood and breast milk spots in nursing African mother-infant pairs. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(4), 1013–1019. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkx507 

  27. Jones, Restrepo, D., Kasowitz, A., Korenstein, D., Wallenstein, S., Schneider, A., & Keller, M. J. (2007). Risk factors for decreased bone density and effects of HIV on bone in the elderly. Osteoporosis International, 19(7), 913–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-007-0524-8 

  28. Cazanave, Dupon, M., Lavignolle-Aurillac, V., Barthe, N., Lawson-Ayayi, S., Mehsen, N., Mercié, P., Morlat, P., Thiébaut, R., & Dabis, F. (2008). Reduced bone mineral density in HIV-infected patients: prevalence and associated factors. AIDS (London), 22(3), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282f423dd 

  29. Brown, & Qaqish, R. B. (2006). Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis: a meta-analytic review. AIDS (London), 20(17), 2165–2174. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32801022eb 

  30. Solomon M. (2015). The safety of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in the presence of hepatitis B infection [Conference presentation abstract TUAC0201, 2015]. 8th International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Prevention (IAS 2015), Vancouver, Canada.

  31. Pinkerton, & Abramson, P.. (1997). Effectiveness of condoms in preventing HIV transmission. AIDS Weekly (p. 37–). NewsRX LLC.

  32. Sivay, Li, M., Piwowar-Manning, E., Zhang, Y., Hudelson, S. E., Marzinke, M. A., Amico, R. K., Redd, A., Hendrix, C. W., Anderson, P. L., Bokoch, K., Gail-Bekker, L., van Griensven, F., Mannheimer, S., Hughes, J. P., Grant, R., & Eshleman, S. H. (2017). Characterization of HIV seroconverters in a TDF/FTC PrEP study: HPTN 067/ADAPT. JAIDS-Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 75(3), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001374 

  33. Schillie, Wester, C., Osborne, M., Wesolowski, L., & Ryerson, A. B. (2020). CDC recommendations for hepatitis C screening among adults - United States, 2020. MMWR. Recommendations and Reports, 69(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6902a1 

  34. Abara, Qaseem, A., Schillie, S., McMahon, B. J., & Harris, A. M. (2017). Hepatitis B vaccination, screening, and linkage to care: best practice advice from the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annals of Internal Medicine, 167(11), 794–804. https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-1106 

  35. Akkaya, Kiyici, M., Yilmaz, Y., Ulukaya, E., & Yerci, O. (2007). Clinical significance of activity of ALT enzyme in patients with hepatitis C virus. World Journal of Gastroenterology: WJG, 13(41), 5481–5485. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v13.i41.5481 

  36. Finer, & Zolna, M. R. (2016). Declines in unintended pregnancy in the United States, 2008–2011. The New England Journal of Medicine, 374(9), 843–852. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1506575 

  37. Ogbuagu, Ruane, P. J., Podzamczer, D., Salazar, L. C., Asmuth, D. M., Wohl, D., Gilson, R., Shao, Y., Cox, S., Kintu, A., Carter, C., Baeten, J. M., Brainard, D. M., Whitlock, G., Brunetta, J. M., Spinner, C. D., Antinori, A., Apea, V., Avery, A., … Brar, I. (2021). Long-term safety and efficacy of emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide vs emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for HIV-1 pre-exposure prophylaxis: week 96 results from a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. The Lancet HIV, 8(7), e397–e407. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(21)00071-0 

  38. Nelson, Weng, M. K., Hofmeister, M. G., Moore, K. L., Doshani, M., Kamili, S., Koneru, A., Haber, P., Hagan, L., Romero, J. R., Schillie, S., & Harris, A. M. (2020). Prevention of hepatitis A virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices, 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Recommendations and Reports, 69(5), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6905a1 

  39. Schillie, Vellozzi, C., Reingold, A., Harris, A., Haber, P., Ward, J. W., & Nelson, N. P. (2018). Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices. MMWR. Recommendations and Reports, 67(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6701a1 

  40. Knox, Tabrizi, S. N., Miller, P., Petoumenos, K., Law, M., Chen, S., & Garland, S. M. (2002). Evaluation of self-collected samples in contrast to practitioner-collected samples for detection of chlamydia trachomatis, neisseria gonorrhoeae, and trichomonas vaginalis by polymerase chain reaction among women living in remote areas. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29(11), 647–654. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200211000-00006 

  41. Lunny, Taylor, D., Hoang, L., Wong, T., Gilbert, M., Lester, R., Krajden, M., Ogilvie, G., & Greub, G. (2015). Self-collected versus clinician-collected sampling for chlamydia and gonorrhea screening: a systemic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 10(7), e0132776–e0132776. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132776 

  42. Dukers-Muijrers, Schachter, J., van Liere, G. A. F. ., Wolffs, P. F. ., & Hoebe, C. J. P. . (2015). What is needed to guide testing for anorectal and pharyngeal chlamydia trachomatis and neisseria gonorrhoeae in women and men? Evidence and opinion. BMC Infectious Diseases, 15(1), 533–533. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-1280-6 

  43. Gratrix, Singh, A. E., Bergman, J., Egan, C., Plitt, S. S., McGinnis, J., Bell, C. A., Drews, S. J., & Read, R. (2015). Evidence for increased chlamydia case finding after the introduction of rectal screening among women attending 2 Canadian sexually transmitted infection clinics. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 60(3), 398–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu831 

  44. Tittle, Boffito, M., McOwan, A., & Whitlock, G. (2020). Antiretroviral resistance and management after pre-exposure prophylaxis. The Lancet HIV, 7(2), e84–e84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(19)30404-7 

  45. Liegler, Abdel-Mohsen, M., Bentley, L. G., Atchison, R., Schmidt, T., Javier, J., Mehrotra, M., Eden, C., Glidden, D. V., McMahan, V., Anderson, P. L., Li, P., Wong, J. K., Buchbinder, S., Guanira, J. V., Grant, R. M., & iPrEx Study Team, S. T. (2014). HIV-1 drug resistance in the iPrEx preexposure prophylaxis trial. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 210(8), 1217–1227. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu233 

  46. Parikh, & Mellors, J. W. (2016). Should we fear resistance from tenofovir/emtricitabine preexposure prophylaxis? Current Opinion in HIV & AIDS, 11(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0000000000000209 

  47. Abbas, Glaubius, R., Mubayi, A., Hood, G., & Mellors, J. W. (2013). Antiretroviral therapy and pre-exposure prophylaxis: combined impact on HIV transmission and drug resistance in South Africa. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 208(2), 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit150 

  48. Baggaley, Powers, K. A., & Boily, M.-C. (2011). What do mathematical models tell us about the emergence and spread of drug-resistant HIV? Current Opinion in HIV & AIDS, 6(2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0b013e328343ad03 

  49. Gibas, van den Berg, P., Powell, V. E., & Krakower, D. S. (2019). Drug resistance during HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. Drugs (New York, N.Y.), 79(6), 609–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-019-01108-x 

  50. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. A & B Recommendations. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation-topics/uspstf-a-and-b-recommendations 

  51. Marzinke, Grinsztejn, B., Fogel, J. M., Piwowar-Manning, E., Li, M., Weng, L., McCauley, M., Cummings, V., Ahmed, S., Haines, C. D., Bushman, L. R., Petropoulos, C., Persaud, D., Adeyeye, A., Kofron, R., Rinehart, A., St Clair, M., Rooney, J. F., Pryluka, D., … Eshleman, S. H. (2021). Characterization of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Cisgender Men and Transgender Women Who Have Sex With Men Receiving Injectable Cabotegravir for HIV Prevention: HPTN 083. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 224(9), 1581–1592. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiab152 

  52. Finer, & Zolna, M. R. (2016). Declines in Unintended Pregnancy in the United States, 2008–2011. The New England Journal of Medicine, 374(9), 843–852. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1506575 

  53. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). A guide to taking a sexual History. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/SexualHistory.pdf

  54. National Coalition for Sexual Health. (2022). Sexual health and your patients: a provider’s guide. Altarum Institute. https://nationalcoalitionforsexualhealth.org/tools/for-healthcare-providers/asset/Provider-Guide_May-2022.pdf

  55. AIDSVu. (n.d.). Deeper look: PrEP. https://aidsvu.org/resources/deeper-look-prep/ 

  56. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, March 6). 2018 CROI Prep Press release. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 13, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/2018/croi-2018-PrEP-press-release.html 

  57. The BIPOC project. The BIPOC Project. (n.d.). Retrieved September 13, 2022, from https://www.thebipocproject.org/ 

  58. Raypole, C. (2021, November 9). The difference between 'BIPOC' and 'POC' matters - here's why. Healthline. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.healthline.com/health/bipoc-meaning#what-it-stands-for 

  59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 26). HIV surveillance. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html 

  60. Ryan J. Watson, Cindy J. Chang, Brian A. Feinstein, Raymond L. Moody, Antonia Caba & Lisa A. Eaton (2022) PrEP Stigma and logistical barriers remain significant challenges in curtailing HIV transmission among Black and Hispanic/Latinx cisgender sexual minority men and transgender women in the US, AIDS Care, DOI: 10.1080/09540121.2022.2098908

  61. Watson, R. J., Chang, C. J., Feinstein, B. A., Moody, R. L., Caba, A., & Eaton, L. A. (2022). Prep stigma and logistical barriers remain significant challenges in curtailing HIV transmission among black and Hispanic/latinx cisgender sexual minority men and transgender women in the US. AIDS Care, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2022.2098908 

  62. Ogunbajo, A., Storholm, E. D., Ober, A. J., Bogart, L. M., Reback, C. J., Flynn, R., Lyman, P., & Morris, S. (2021). Multilevel barriers to HIV prep uptake and adherence among black and Hispanic/latinx transgender women in Southern California. AIDS and Behavior, 25(7), 2301–2315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03159-2 

  63. Ogunbajo, A., Storholm, E. D., Ober, A. J., Bogart, L. M., Reback, C. J., Flynn, R., Lyman, P., & Morris, S. (2021). Multilevel barriers to HIV prep uptake and adherence among black and Hispanic/latinx transgender women in Southern California. AIDS and Behavior, 25(7), 2301–2315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03159-2

  64. Watson, R. J., Chang, C. J., Feinstein, B. A., Moody, R. L., Caba, A., & Eaton, L. A. (2022). Prep stigma and logistical barriers remain significant challenges in curtailing HIV transmission among black and Hispanic/latinx cisgender sexual minority men and transgender women in the US. AIDS Care, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2022.2098908 

  65. Bogart, L. M., Takada, S., & Cunningham, W. E. (2020). Medical Mistrust, discrimination, and the domestic HIV epidemic. HIV in US Communities of Color, 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48744-7_12 

  66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, November 23). PrEP for HIV prevention in the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/fact-sheets/hiv/PrEP-for-hiv-prevention-in-the-US-factsheet.html 

  67. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 28). HIV and African American people. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/racialethnic/africanamericans/index.html 

  68. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 18). HIV diagnoses. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/gender/women/diagnoses.html 

  69. Auerbach, J. D., Kinsky, S., Brown, G., & Charles, V. (2015). Knowledge, attitudes, and likelihood of pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) use among US women at risk of acquiring HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 29(2), 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2014.0142 

  70. Ogunbajo, A., Storholm, E. D., Ober, A. J., Bogart, L. M., Reback, C. J., Flynn, R., Lyman, P., & Morris, S. (2021). Multilevel barriers to HIV prep uptake and adherence among black and Hispanic/latinx transgender women in Southern California. AIDS and Behavior, 25(7), 2301–2315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03159-2 

  71. Becasen, J. S., Denard, C. L., Mullins, M. M., Higa, D. H., & Sipe, T. A. (2019). Estimating the prevalence of HIV and sexual behaviors among the US transgender population: A systematic review and meta-analysis, 2006–2017. American Journal of Public Health, 109(1). https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304727 

  72. Restar, A. J., Kuhns, L., Reisner, S. L., Ogunbajo, A., Garofalo, R., & Mimiaga, M. J. (2018). Acceptability of antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis from a cohort of sexually experienced young transgender women in two U.S. cities. AIDS and Behavior, 22(11), 3649–3657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2127-0 

  73. Sevelius, J. M., Keatley, J. A., Calma, N., & Arnold, E. (2016). ‘I am not a man’: Trans-specific barriers and facilitators to prep acceptability among transgender women. Global Public Health, 11(7-8), 1060–1075. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1154085 

  74. Ogunbajo, A., Storholm, E. D., Ober, A. J., Bogart, L. M., Reback, C. J., Flynn, R., Lyman, P., & Morris, S. (2021). Multilevel barriers to HIV prep uptake and adherence among black and Hispanic/latinx transgender women in Southern California. AIDS and Behavior, 25(7), 2301–2315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03159-2 

  75. Eaton, L. A., Driffin, D. D., Bauermeister, J., Smith, H., & Conway-Washington, C. (2015). Minimal awareness and stalled uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) among at risk, HIV-negative, black men who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 29(8), 423–429. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2014.0303 

  76. Brooks, R. A., Landrian, A., Nieto, O., & Fehrenbacher, A. (2019). Experiences of anticipated and enacted pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) stigma among Latino MSM in Los Angeles. AIDS and Behavior, 23(7), 1964–1973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02397-9 

  77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 28). HIV by age. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/age/index.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Fgroup%2Fage%2Fyouth%2Findex.html 

  78. Taggart, T., Liang, Y., Pina, P., & Albritton, T. (2020). Awareness of and willingness to use prep among black and Latinx adolescents residing in higher prevalence areas in the United States. PLOS ONE, 15(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234821 

  79. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 26). HIV surveillance. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html 

  80. National Indian Health Board. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.nihb.org/ 

  81. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 28). HIV in the United States by Race/Ethnicity. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/racialethnic/other-races/index.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Fgroup%2Fracialethnic%2Fasians%2Findex.html 

  82. Ending Asian & Pacific Islander HIV Stigma Starts here. Legacy Community Health. (2021, May 13). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.legacycommunityhealth.org/newsblog-ending-api-hiv-stigma-starts-here/ 

  83. Wilberg, M. (2021, June 15). People who use drugs who are homeless good candidates for prep with appropriate support. aidsmap.com. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.aidsmap.com/news/jun-2021/people-who-use-drugs-who-are-homeless-good-candidates-prep-appropriate-support 

  84. Welcome to the California Overdose Surveillance Dashboard. CA Overdose Dashboard. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://skylab.cdph.ca.gov/ODdash/?tab=Home 

  85. CA Department of Public Health. (n.d.). Ending the HIV Epidemic. Ending the HIV Epidemic - CDC . Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/Pages/CID.aspx 

  86. Geter, A., Herron, A. R., & Sutton, M. Y. (2018). HIV-related stigma by healthcare providers in the United States: A systematic review. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 32(10), 418–424. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2018.0114 

  87. Bunting, S. R., Feinstein, B. A., Calabrese, S. K., Hazra, A., Sheth, N. K., Chen, A. F., & Garber, S. S. (2022). Assumptions about patients seeking prep: Exploring the effects of patient and sexual partner race and Gender Identity and the moderating role of implicit racism. PLOS ONE, 17(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270861

  88. Bogart, L. M., Takada, S., & Cunningham, W. E. (1970, January 1). Medical Mistrust, discrimination, and the domestic HIV epidemic. SpringerLink. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-48744-7_12 

  89. Martha Hostetter and Sarah Klein, “Understanding and Ameliorating Medical Mistrust Among Black Americans, “Transforming Care (newsletter), Commonwealth Fund, Jan 14, 2021. https://dou.org/10.26099/9grt-2b21

  90. Alexander Green, M. D. (n.d.). 3 simple ways to alleviate patient mistrust. Quality Interactions. Retrieved January 10, 2022, from https://www.qualityinteractions.com/blog/3-simple-ways-to-alleviate-patient-mistrust

  91. Nelson, A. (2002, August). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Journal of the National Medical Association. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2594273/ 

  92. Ojikutu, B. O., Amutah-Onukagha, N., Mahoney, T. F., Tibbitt, C., Dale, S. D., Mayer, K. H., & Bogart, L. M. (2020). HIV-related mistrust (or HIV conspiracy theories) and willingness to use prep among black women in the United States. AIDS and Behavior, 24(10), 2927–2934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02843-z 

  93. Bogart, L. M., Takada, S., & Cunningham, W. E. (2020). Medical Mistrust, discrimination, and the domestic HIV epidemic. HIV in US Communities of Color, 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48744-7_12 

  94. AlRuthia, Y., Sales, I., Almalag, H., Alwhaibi, M., Almosabhi, L., Albassam, A. A., Alharbi, F. A., Bashatah, A., & Asiri, Y. (2020). the relationship between health-related quality of life and trust in primary care physicians among patients with diabetes. Clinical Epidemiology, Volume 12, 143–151. https://doi.org/10.2147/clep.s236952 

  95. Alpers, L.-M. (2016). Distrust and patients in Intercultural Healthcare: A qualitative interview study. Nursing Ethics, 25(3), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733016652449 

  96. Greer, T. M., Brondolo, E., & Brown, P. (2014). Systemic racism moderates effects of provider racial biases on adherence to hypertension treatment for African Americans. Health Psychology, 33(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032777 

  97. Bazargan, M., Cobb, S., & Assari, S. (2021). Discrimination and medical mistrust in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of California adults. The Annals of Family Medicine, 19(1), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2632 

  98. Hilton, E. J., Lunardi, N., Sreedharan, R., Goff, K. L., Batakji, M., & Rosenberger, D. S. (2020). Two sides of the same coin. Anesthesiology Clinics, 38(2), 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anclin.2020.01.001 

  99. Figure 18. percentage of all active physicians by Race/ethnicity, 2018. AAMC. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.aamc.org/data-reports/workforce/interactive-data/figure-18-percentage-all-active-physicians-race/ethnicity-2018 

  100. U.S. Census Bureau quickfacts: United States. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045221 

  101. Batalova, J. B. J. (2021, May 14). Immigrant health-care workers in the United States. migrationpolicy.org. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/immigrant-health-care-workers-united-states-2018 

  102. Greenwood, H. (2021, November 16). Cultural diversity in Healthcare: USAHS. University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.usa.edu/blog/diversity-in-healthcare/ 

  103. Togioka, B. M., Duvivier, D., & Young, E. (2022). Diversity and Discrimination In Healthcare. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

  104. Social Determinants of Health. Social Determinants of Health - Healthy People 2030. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health 

  105. Andriano, T. M., Arnsten, J., & Patel, V. V. (2022). Social Determinants of health and HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) interest and use among young black and Latinx Sexual Minority men. PLOS ONE, 17(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267031 

  106. Ogunbajo, A., Storholm, E. D., Ober, A. J., Bogart, L. M., Reback, C. J., Flynn, R., Lyman, P., & Morris, S. (2021, January 29). Multilevel barriers to HIV prep uptake and adherence among black and Hispanic/latinx transgender women in Southern California - AIDS and behavior. SpringerLink. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10461-021-03159-2 

  107. Understanding and addressing the social determinants of health for ... (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.lgbtqiahealtheducation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/TFIE-33_SDOHForBlackLGBTPeople_Web.pdf 

  108. 10 strategies for creating LGBTQIA+ inclusive healthcare - cloudbreak. Martti by UpHealth. (2021, June 7). Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.martti.us/2021/06/07/ten-strategies-for-creating-inclusive-healthcare-environments-for-lgbtqia-people/ 

  109. Salabarría-Peña, Y., Douglas, C., Brantley, M., & Johnson, A. K. (2021, September 2). Informing the future of prep navigation: Findings from a five-site cluster evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning. Retrieved September 16, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014971892100094X







‌